@misc{10498/37862,
year = {2025},
month = {8},
url = {http://hdl.handle.net/10498/37862},
abstract = {The Karnak Temples are considered one of Egypt’s most significant archaeological sites,
dating back to the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000–1700 BC) and were continuously expanded un-
til the Ptolemaic period (305–30 BC). As the second most visited UNESCO World Heritage
archaeological site in Egypt after the Giza Pyramids, Karnak faces severe deterioration
processes due to prolonged exposure to environmental impacts, mechanical damage, and
historical interventions. This study employs a multidisciplinary approach integrating
non-destructive testing (NDT) methods to assess the physical and mechanical condition
and degradation mechanisms of scattered sandstone blocks at the site. Advanced documen-
tation techniques, including Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI), photogrammetry,
and Infrared Thermography (IRT), were used to analyze surface morphology, thermal stress
effects, and weathering patterns. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) testing provided internal
structural assessments, while spectral and gloss analysis quantified chromatic alterations
and surface roughness. Additionally, the Karsten Tube test determined the water absorp-
tion behavior of the sandstone, highlighting variations in porosity and susceptibility to salt
crystallization. In this sense, the results indicate that climatic factors such as extreme tem-
perature fluctuations, wind erosion, and groundwater infiltration contributed to sandstone
deterioration. Thermal cycling leads to microcracking and granular disintegration, while
high capillary water absorption accelerates chemical weathering processes. UPV analyses
showed substantial internal decay, with low-velocity zones correlating with fractures and
differential cementation loss. Finally, an interventive conservation plan was proposed.},
publisher = {Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI)},
keywords = {non-destructive testing (NDT)},
keywords = {urface characterization},
keywords = {sandstone deterioration},
keywords = {heritage conservation},
keywords = {Karnak Temples},
keywords = {Karnak Stones project},
title = {Integrated Documentation and Non-Destructive Surface Characterization of Ancient Egyptian Sandstone Blocks at Karnak Temples (Luxor, Egypt)},
doi = {10.3390/HERITAGE8080320},
author = {Fahmy, Abdelrhman and Dominguez-Bella, Salvador and Durante-Macías, Ana and Martínez Viñas, Fabiola and Molina Piernas, Eduardo},
}